THE EARLY YEARS OF THE 20th CENTURY

THE FAILURE OF THE BALANCE POWER THEORYThe French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars had spread the concept of democracy throughout most of the European continent, thus spreading the idea that populations sharing an ethnic origin, a language and the same political ideals had the right to form independent states. However, the principle of national self-determination was totally ignored by the dynastic and reactionary forces that decided the fate of European affairs at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Many of the peoples who wanted their autonomy were subjected to local dynasties or other nations. For example, the German states, integrated into the German Confederation, were divided into numerous ducats, principalities, and kingdoms according to the terms of the Vienna Congress; Italy was also divided into several political units, some of which were under foreign control; the Flemish and French Belgians of the Austrian Netherlands were subordinated to Dutch rule by decision of Congress.The revolutions and strong nationalist movements of the 19th century succeeded in annulling much of the reactionary impositions agreed in Vienna. Belgium gained independence from the Netherlands in 1830; the unification of Italy was completed in 1861, and that of Germany in 1871. However, nationalist conflicts remained unresolved in other areas of Europe at the beginning of the 20th century, causing tensions within the regions involved and between various European nations. One of the most important nationalist currents, Pan-Slavism, played a fundamental role in the events that preceded the war. The nationalist spirit was also evident in the economic field. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, in France at the beginning of the 19th century and in Germany from 1870 onwards, led to a large increase in manufactured goods, forcing these countries to seek new markets abroad. The area in which the European policy of economic expansion was mainly developed was Africa, where the respective colonial interests frequently came into conflict. The economic rivalry over the dominance of African territory between France, Germany and Great Britain was on the verge, from 1898 to 1914, of provoking a war in Europe on several occasions.As a result of international tensions, European nations took both domestic and foreign policy measures between 1871 and 1914 that, in turn, increased the danger of conflict; maintained numerous permanent armies, which they constantly expanded through peacetime recruitments; and built larger ships. Great Britain, influenced by the development of the German Navy, which began in 1900, and by the course of the Russo-Japanese War, modernized its fleet under the direction of Admiral Sir John Fisher. The war between Russia and Japan had demonstrated the effectiveness of long-range naval armament. Advances in other areas of military technology and organization stimulated the formation of staffs capable of drawing up very precise mobilization and attack plans, often integrated into programs that could not be cancelled once initiated.Leaders in all countries became aware that rising expenditures on armaments would eventually lead to national bankruptcies or war; for this reason, attempts were made to promote global disarmament on several occasions, notably at the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907. However, international rivalry had reached such a point that no effective agreement could be reached to decide on international disarmament.