Bøker utgitt av Walter de Gruyter

Bausteine für das lebenslange Lernen! Mit Teamspielen sind spielerische Übungen bezeichnet, in denen bestimmte Aufgaben zu lösen sind. Die Teilnehmer können verschiedene Rollen einnehmen, ausprobieren und reflektieren. Ebenso wichtig ist der Transfer: Wo kommen ähnliche Situationen im Alltag vor? Was lässt sich davon übertragen? Was lässt sich daraus lernen? Teil 1 dieses Buchs gibt eine theoretische Einführung in das Thema "Spiel", also in den Kontext der Spielmethoden. Als Leser erhalten Sie Einblick in die Wurzeln dieses Phänomens, in die biologischen und neurobiologischen Grundlagen des Spiels, einschließlich Aspekte aus der Spieltheorie. Teil 2 bildet den praktischen Teil und insofern den Schwerpunkt des Buches. Von A bis Z werden hier beliebte und idealtypische Methoden vorgestellt, die sich in der Praxis bewährt haben, möglichst einfach zu organisieren und durchzuführen sind. Das Buch wendet sich an Lehrende und Lernende, Trainer und Moderatoren, Gruppenleiter und alle an trainingsorientierten Spielen Interessierte.

Much recent influential work within Generative grammar argues that syntax plays a key role in grammar and meaning composition, whereas the role of the lexicon is minimal. This book provides evidence that supports a more balanced division of labor between syntax and the lexicon in the creation of meaning. The author argues that grammatical theory can only ignore lexical meaning at its own peril and defends a theoretical standpoint which is underrepresented in much of the current work in this area . This book explores a wide range of relevant empirical data and makes a compelling case for a theory that can make adequate predictions about possible linguistic structures by allowing the lexicon and the grammar to dynamically interact and impose restrictions on each other.　 　

The handbook presents key contributions from scholars worldwide, providing a comprehensive exploration of current trends in media industries from diverse perspectives. Within the framework of understanding contemporary and future trajectories in media markets and industries, the volume delves into their influence on media organization and delivery, along with broader societal and market implications. Encompassing research at the crossroads of economics, management, political economy, and production studies, the handbook emphasizes the necessity for a robust interdisciplinary dialogue. Beyond scrutinizing present and forthcoming industry developments, the handbook addresses pivotal issues pertaining to media economics research methods and pedagogy. It serves as a valuable resource for scholars, students, and media professionals, providing insights into media economics as an academic field and delving into the multifaceted dynamics that shape the media landscape. Doing this, it contributes to the ongoing discourse on the evolving nature of media markets and their profound impact on society.

The pandemic, climate change, rising populism, geo-political unrest - just a few of the issues causing turbulence in today's world. We are living and working in times that are complex and fast changing. If complexity theory is good for anything, it must be able to throw light on this global landscape and help us to think through what to do in response. Jean Boulton, with her background in the physical as well as the social sciences, and her practical experience of management and consultancy, is well placed to present complexity theory and its implications in a way that is fresh, profound and accessible. The Dao of Complexity is a book about challenging and deepening worldviews, connecting ideas from such diverse fields as quantum physics, process philosophy, phenomenology, systems change, politics, economics and psychology as well as ancient wisdom. It explores what 'making sense' of the world means in these turbulent times and how that galvanises action. The book introduces 'process complexity'. It explores the remarkable resonance between the complexity worldview and Daoism, engaging with the processual, contextual and emergent nature both of ourselves and of the world of which we are a part. Jean discusses what this means for those of us trying to make a difference, trying to 'make waves' in a world of increasing connectivity, polarisation and fragility. Taking its lead from Daoist texts, the design encourages readers to open at any page and use the short, stand-alone, yet networked pieces as reflective starting points. This book is about change - how to attune to its natural flow and how to 'make change happen'. It will be of interest to scholars and students of management and sustainability, as well as practicing managers, policy makers and consultants looking for inspiration. The general reader interested in science, philosophy and ancient wisdom will find relatable material to explore how to engage effectively in this complex world.

Master the dynamic world of financial technology with Fintech in a Flash, Fourth Edition - your definitive guide to managing and optimizing your online finances and staying ahead of the curve in an era where digital finance is reshaping our lives. As global investment in fintech soars and startups reach new heights, understanding this sector is more crucial than ever. This comprehensive manual demystifies the rapidly evolving fintech landscape, transforming complex concepts into digestible insights. Whether it's exploring online payments, diving into challenger banks, or dissecting insurtech and wealthtech, this book has you covered. Here's what sets it apart: Concise yet thorough explanations of the 14 fundamental fintech pillars. Projections into the future of fintech, preparing you for what's next. A deep dive into global fintech hotspots and the game-changing 'Unicorns.' A handpicked selection of emerging fintech stars to watch. Authored by Agustin Rubini, a celebrated fintech and AI expert, this book is an indispensable resource. Whether you're an entrepreneur, a professional in banking and finance, a consultant, or simply a fintech enthusiast, Fintech in a Flash provides you the knowledge to navigate and excel in the fintech revolution.

This collection on legal interpretation in a broad sense presents state-of-the-art linguistic approaches that are applied for studying interpretation and meaning generation in various legal settings. It covers different aspects of the concepts like judicial dissent, court argumentation, investigating sociological meaning, or comparing legal meaning in comparative law. Scholars can turn to the volume for methods and findings to ground their own inquiries, and students will find guides to topics and methods in the field of law, meaning generation, and language.

The book is dedicated to the linguistic, psycholinguistic, and ethnolinguistic dimensions of Italian as a heritage language spoken by minorities in the Americas and Europe. The contributions deepen our understanding of heritage language bilingualism in general, especially by comparing the acquisition of inflectional morphology in Italian with the processes at play in other heritage languages.

This multi-authored monograph, located in the intersection of translanguaging research and Romani studies, offers a state-of-the-art analysis of the ways in which translanguaging supports bilingual Roma students' learning in monolingual school systems. Complete with a video repository of translanguaging classroom moments, this comprehensive study is based on long-term participatory ethnographic research and a pedagogical implementation project undertaken in Hungary and Slovakia by a group of primary teachers, bilingual Roma participants, and researchers. Co-written by academic and non-academic participants, the book is an essential reading for researchers, pre- and in-service teachers of Romani-speaking students, and experts working with collaborators (learners, informants, activists) whose home languages are excluded from mainstream education and school curricula. The videofiles in the book are available via the following website: http: //www.kre.hu/romanitranslanguaging/index.php/video-repository/

In the field of second language (L2) acquisition, the number of studies focusing on L2 pronunciation instruction and perceptual/production training has increased as new classroom methodologies have been proposed and new goals for L2 pronunciation have been set. This book brings together different approaches to L2 pronunciation research in the classroom or in the language laboratory. 13 chapters, written by well-known researchers focusing on a variety of first and target languages, are divided into four parts: Pronunciation development and intelligibility: implications for teaching and training studies; L2 pronunciation teaching; L2 pronunciation training: implications for the classroom; and Pronunciation in the laboratory: High Variability Phonetic Training. Intended for researchers in the fields of second language acquisition, phonetics, phonology, psycholinguistics, speech therapies, speech technology, as well as second language teaching, this book not only summarizes the current research questions on L2 pronunciation teaching and training, but also predicts future scenarios for both researchers and practitioners in the field.

In this edited volume, language weaponization - or the weaponization of language - is used to describe the process in which words, discourse, and language in any form can be used to inflict harm on others. The term harm is of vital importance because it refers to how specific groups of people are affected by ideologies and practices that normalize inequity and injustice in their environments. The contributions in this book explore how language ideologies, practices, and policies can physically, emotionally, socially, and/or economically disadvantage or harm minoritized individuals, as well as their cultures and languages.

Benito Mussolini gründete seine Diktatur auf Gewalt und Propaganda. Zur Selbststilisierung gehörten die fast täglichen Audienzen, über die man bisher wenig weiß. Auch viele Deutsche bemühten sich zwischen 1923 und 1943 um einen Empfang beim Duce, wie Wolfgang Schieder anhand der vollständig erhaltenen Audienzlisten nachweist. Die hier vorgelegten Berichte über ihre Gespräche mit Mussolini lassen zweierlei erkennen: Mussolini inszenierte seine Audienzen minutiös und hatte damit auch erstaunlich großen Erfolg. Die Audienz als Propagandainstrument und Mittel zur Herrschaftsstabilisierung wird damit erstmals in den Mittelpunkt gerückt. Deutlich wird darüber hinaus der hochgespannte Erwartungshorizont der deutschen Mussolinisympathisanten, wobei hier das Jahr 1933 eine Grenze markiert. Die Besucher aus der Zeit der Weimarer Republik sahen im Faschismus vor allem eine Alternative zum Nationalsozialismus, der ihnen mitnichten geheuer war, während die Führungskader des NS-Regimes dem Duce als ihrem Mentor huldigten und seinen Segen empfangen wollten. Viele Nationalsozialisten pilgerten selbst dann noch nach Rom, als die Schwäche des Faschismus längst offenbar geworden war. Wolfgang Schieders aufschlussreiche Untersuchung weist neue Wege einer kulturwissenschaftlich orientierten Politikgeschichte.

The Roman foundation myth has been the subject of classical scholarship for centuries. But much in the story of Romulus and Remus remains unexplained. This is the first English language book-length study of the Lupercalia, a religious festival central to understanding both the Roman foundation myth and the history of Rome. The festival of the Lupercalia was a male initiation ritual and shares a number of traits with similar rituals across the world. The agonistic elements in the story of Romulus and Remus and the Lupercalia can be compared to a number of Vedic rituals and traced back to a common Indo-European prehistory. The Lupercalia celebration remained a central annual event throughout the history of Rome and reflected political and social life in the city. Caesar used it to stage a refusal of kingship and Augustus restored its initiatory aspect, which continued in the period of the Empire. It survived all attempts of Christian prohibition to appear in the form of a carnival that criticized the pope in the late 5th century. In sum, the book offers a new interpretation of the Roman foundation myth and the Lupercalia. It follows the transformation of a unique ritual from its Indo-European roots through Roman history to late antiquity.

With the growth of applications of textiles in various multidisciplinary domains e.g., clothing, home textiles, and technical applications, there is a need of book covering fundamentals of textiles. This introductory-level textbook is geared toward the introduction of textile engineering. This book is beneficial for all readers who are going to start their career in textiles or related domains or are going to start an engineering degree in textiles.

Das Buch behandelt die Geschichte der Hebräer von der langen Phase der Ansiedlung, die um 1200 begann, bis zum Ende der Monarchie Israel 721 und derjenigen Judas 587. Neben die Darstellung der historischen Entwicklung tritt die Beschreibung von Gesellschaft und Religion in der segmentären Gesellschaft der vorstaatlichen Zeit sowie in den beiden Königreichen. Die wissenschaftlichen Diskussionen der Geschichte Israels sind vor allem geprägt durch unterschiedliche Modelle zur Ansiedlung sowie zur Quellenlage der Monarchien im 10. und 9. Jahrhundert. Neben der äußerst kontroversen Bewertung der schriftlichen Zeugnisse spielt dabei die Einschätzung und vor allem Datierung der archäologischen Hinterlassenschaften eine wichtige Rolle.

This book reflects the development of Latin American labour history across broad geographical, chronological and thematic perspectives, which seek to review and revisit key concepts at different levels. The contributions are closely linked to the most recent trends in Global Labour History and in turn, they enrich those trends.　 Here, authors from Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Mexico, Peru and Spain take a historical and sociological perspective and analyse a series of problems relating to labour relations. The chapters weave together different periods of Latin American colonial and republican history　from the vice-royalties of New Spain (now Mexico) and Peru, the　Royal　Audiencia de Charcas　(now Bolivia), Argentina and Uruguay (former vice-royalty of Río de La Plata) and Chile (former　Capitanía General).

The future has become a problem for the present. Almost every critical issue is now understood and experienced through the prism of the future since this is the primary focus for the playing out of crises. Senses of the Future offers a wide-ranging discussion of theories of the future. It covers the main ideas of the future in modern thought and explores how we should view the future today in light of a plurality of very different and conflicting visions. The key contribution of this book is to bring together the different approaches with an account that is grounded in sociological and philosophical analysis as opposed to visions of the future that are inspired by extreme visions of catastrophe or approaches that see the future as only the continuation of the present. Given a revival of apocalyptical visions of the 'end times' and dystopian views of the future of human societies, there is urgent need for a new approach on how we should imagine the future. The author explores the future as a field of tensions that is revealed in narratives, utopian desires, hope, imaginaries, and social struggles concerning the potential possibilities of the present: the future does not just arrive; it has to be fought for. This book is an important contribution to a critical sociology of the future. It is both a work of reconstruction and critique grounded in a historical and philosophical hermeneutics of the future. Table of Contents Chapter One Introduction: Conflicting Visions of the Future Contested Visions of the Future Today Return to the Future Outline of the Chapters References Chapter Two When is the Future? The Problem of Time and the Human Condition Time in the Physical World: Lessons from Physics Has the Future already Begun? Time and History Time, Life, and the Human Condition: Biology, Evolution, and Culture Conclusion References Chapter Three Lessons from the Past: What Does the Past Tell Us about the Future? The Future in the Past Failed Societies and Civilizational Collapse Catastrophes and History Conclusion References Chapter Four Modernity and the Concept of the Future: Utopia, Progress, and Prophecy The Future as Expectation The Future as an Imaginary and the Emergence of Utopianism The Future as Possibility The Future as Experience Conclusion References Chapter Five Ideas of the Future in the Twentieth Century: Futurism, Modernism, Sociology, and Political Theory New Political Ideas of the Future after 1945 Responses to the Future: From Fear of the Future to Futurology Sociological Theory and the Future Conclusion: The New Sociology of the Future References Chapter Six Critical Theory and the Future: The Sources of Transcendence The Intellectual Origins of Critical Theory: A Brief Outline The Idea of the Future in the Critical Theory of the Early Frankfurt School Habermas and the Communication Paradigm The Responsibility Paradigm and Cosmopolitanism: Jonas and Apel Critical Cosmopolitanism and the Idea of the Future Conclusion: Cultural Models and the Future as Possibility References Chapter Seven Conclusion: In The Shadow of the Future Do We Need a Theory of the Future? Are we already in a New Historical Era? AI and a Posthuman Future Struggles for the Future References Index

We live and work in a world of change. Helping individuals and teams prepare for, respond to, and learn from change are critical for thriving. Managers and leaders at all levels play a vital role in developing talent, increasing performance, and supporting transitions and transformations. This book is about effectively coaching others in your role as a manager-coach. A manager-coach is a person who uses coaching-related knowledge, approaches, and skills to coach team members in the organization who report to them or who have sought their coaching. In 16 chapters, leaders at all levels, human resource professionals, and graduate students will find research-based, practical approaches to developing talent, improving performance, and supporting transformation. Topics include the change coaching process, theoretical foundtions of coaching, use of self in managerial coaching, six coaching skills, how to coach across differences, specialty coaching (peer, team, and executive), ethical considerations for coaching, and continuous development for manager-coaches. Provides models, frameworks and tools that can be used to coach team members.

This volume explores the emergent process of developing translanguaging repertoires among teacher educators, pre- and in-service teachers in different U.S. teacher education contexts. Its empirically based chapters adopt various qualitative methods to unpack the opportunities and challenges and provide implications for critical teacher education. It will be of interest to researchers and teachers in bilingual education, TESOL and social justice.

This book fills a gap in the literature as it uniquely approaches onomastics from the perspective of both anthropology and linguistics. It addresses names and cultures from 16 countries and five continents, thus offering readers an opportunity to comprehend and compare names and naming practices across cultures. The chapters presented in this book explore the cultural significance of personal names, naming ceremonies, conventions and practices. They illustrate how these names and practices perform certain culture-specific functions, such as religion, identity and social activity. Some chapters address the socio-political significance of personal names and their expression of self and otherness. The book also links the linguistic structure of personal names to culture by looking at their morphology, syntax and semantics. It is divided into four sections: Section 1 demonstrates how personal names perform human culture, Section 2 focuses on how personal names index socio-political transitioning, Section 3 demonstrates religious values in personal names and naming, and Section 4 links linguistic structure and analysis of personal names to culture and heritage.

This book explores the life stories of Latin American immigrants living in London. Through a critical analysis of their discourses in various contexts, this book provides insights into representations of migration and processes of exclusion among co-ethnics. Ideologies of language, neoliberalism and social class intersect with such constructs as gender, race and ethnicity as the participants categorise other Latin Americans and themselves in the social spaces that they have cohabitated. It is a timely work for those interested in the history of Latin America, its people in diaspora, social inequality and the interrelationship between language and identity in a context of mobility.

Existential semiotics is a new paradigm which combines classical semiotics with continental philosophy. It does not mean a return to existentialism, albeit philosophers from Hegel and Kierkegaard to Heidegger, Jaspers and Sartre are its sources of inspiration. It introduces completely new sign categories and concepts to the field, recasting the whole of semiotics, communication and signification as integral to a transcendental art. The volume contains essays on music, the voice, silence, calligraphy, metaphysics, myth, aesthetics, entropy, cultural heritage, film, the Bible, among other subjects.

This volume offers an in-depth analysis of the social phenomenon of migration from various legal-linguistic perspectives. Migration has become a global phenomenon and a burning issue provoking social conflict and political instability in modern societies all over the world. The question of dealing with migrants and asylum seekers has dominated political discourse. It has given rise to national and international legislation on emigration and immigration, some of them including discriminatory provisions, pressed laws against immigration (Acts of exclusion) and prompted anti-migration rhetoric and hate speech against migrants. Important efforts have been made in both common law and civil law jurisdictions to protect migrants' fundamental rights to dignity and equality.

Leben und Wundertaten der heiligen Elisabeth von Thüringen sind der Inhalt des 'Elisabethlebens' des Eisenacher Ratsschreibers Johannes Rothe (ca. 1360-1434). Rothe, der zuvor bereits geistliche Werke sowie drei umfangreiche Chroniken ('Eisenacher Stadtchronik', 'Thüringische Landeschronik' und 'Weltchronik) verfasst hat, bietet in der paargereimten Verslegende von über 4000 Versen die umfassende Wiedergabe der chronikalischen und legendarischen Überlieferung, wobei er neben den Chroniken besonders die lateinische Vita Dietrichs von Apolda auswertet. In dem formalen Anschluss an Heiligenlegenden und der inhaltlichen Orientierung an der Chronistik nimmt Rothe einen gattungsübergreifenden Standpunkt ein. Elisabeths Leben wird in die Genealogie des Landgrafengeschlechts eingebunden und damit zum Bestandteil der landgräflichen Memorialkultur. In der Rezeptionsgeschichte des Textes, mit zahlreichen Abschriften bis ins 18. Jh., sind entsprechende Schwerpunkte nachweisbar: das Werk wurde teils als Andachtsbuch genutzt, teils als Bestandteil der Dynastiememoria des thüringischen Herrscherhauses. Rothes Text wird hier erstmals auf der Grundlage der gesamten Überlieferung ediert. Im Parallelabdruck wird eine zweite Fassung geboten, sodass sich die Interessenverschiebungen gegenüber dem Text und die damit verbundenen Varianzen jeweils überschauen lassen.br>

While "economic forces" are often cited as being a key cause of language loss, there is very little research that explores this link in detail. This work, based on policy analysis and ethnographic data, addresses this deficit. It examines how neoliberalism, the dominant economic orthodoxy of recent decades, has impacted the vitality of Irish in the Republic of Ireland since 2008. Drawing on concepts well established in public policy studies, but not prominent in the subfield of language policy, the neoliberalisation of Irish-language support measures is charted, including the disproportionately severe budget cuts they received. It is argued that neoliberalism's antipathy towards social planning and redistributive economic policies meant that supports for Irish were inevitably hit especially hard in an era of austerity. Ethnographic data from Irish-speaking communities reinforce this point and illustrate how macro-level economic disruptions can affect language use at the micro-level. Labour market transformations, emigration and the dismantling of community institutions are documented, along with many related developments, thereby highlighting an issue of relevance to communities around the world, the fundamental tension between neoliberalism and language revitalisation efforts.

This book is the first to connect global labor history and the history of human rights: By focusing on democratic labor oppositions in Spain and Poland between 1960 and 1990, it shows how workers in authoritarian regimes addressed repression and whether they developed a language of rights in the light of a globally dynamic human rights discourse. The study argues that the democratic labor oppositions in Spain and Poland were both variants of emancipatory and democracy-oriented social movements with global interconnections that emerged in the 1960s. It reveals that the demands for free and independent trade unions, which in both countries became a flashpoint in the fight for broader democratic demands, was not always discussed in rights terms, but rather presented as an inevitable necessity. At the same time, these labor movements and their intellectual allies morally delegitimized state repression against workers and thereby employed the concepts of democracy, participation, solidarity, progress and eventually, rights. Integrating the history of two European semi-peripheric societies into a broader narrative, this book is relevant for readers interested in global labor history, human rights history and the history of democratization in Europe in the late twentieth century.

Issues in Japanese Psycholinguistics from Comparative Perspectives compiles over 30 state-of-the-art articles on Japanese psycholinguistics. It emphasizes the importance of using comparative perspectives when conducting psycholinguistic research. Psycholinguistic studies of Japanese have contributed greatly to the field from a cross-linguistic perspective. However, the target languages for comparison have been limited. Most research focuses on English and a few other typologically similar languages. As a result, many current theories of psycholinguistics fail to acknowledge the nature of ergative-absolutive and/or object-before-subject languages. The cross-linguistic approach is not the only method of comparison in psycholinguistics. Other prominent comparative aspects include comprehension vs. production, native speakers vs. second language learners, typical vs. aphasic language development. Many of these approaches are underrepresented in Japanese psycholinguistics. The studies reported in the volumes attempt to bridge these gaps. Using various experimental and/or computational methods, they address issues of the universality/diversity of the human language and the nature of the relationship between human cognitive modules. Volume 2, Interaction Between Linguistic and Nonlinguistic Factors, provides studies on the interaction between linguistic and non-linguistic factors.

Issues in Japanese Psycholinguistics from Comparative Perspectives compiles 31 state-of-the-art articles on Japanese psycholinguistics. It emphasizes the importance of using comparative perspectives when conducting psycholinguistic research. Psycholinguistic studies of Japanese have contributed greatly to the field from a cross-linguistic perspective. However, the target languages for comparison have been limited. Most research focuses on English and a few other typologically similar languages. As a result, many current theories of psycholinguistics fail to acknowledge the nature of ergative-absolutive and/or object-before-subject languages. The cross-linguistic approach is not the only method of comparison in psycholinguistics. Other prominent comparative aspects include comprehension vs. production, native speakers vs. second language learners, typical vs. aphasic language development. Many of these approaches are underrepresented in Japanese psycholinguistics. The studies reported in the volumes attempt to bridge these gaps. Using various experimental and/or computational methods, they address issues of the universality/diversity of the human language and the nature of the relationship between human cognitive modules. Volume 1, Cross-Linguistic Studies, compares Japanese and other languages, including well-studied languages such as English, as well as lesser-studied languages such as Kaqchikel.

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The concept of 'hybridity' is often still poorly theorized and problematically applied by peace and development scholars and researchers of resource governance. This book turns to a particular ethnographic reading of Michel Foucault's Governmentality and investigates its usefulness to study precisely those mechanisms, processes and practices that hybridity once promised to clarify. Claim-making to land and authority in a post-conflict environment is the empirical grist supporting this exploration of governmentality. Specifically in the periphery of Bukavu. This focus is relevant as urban land is increasingly becoming scarce in rapidly expanding cities of eastern Congo, primarily due to internal rural-to-urban migration as a result of regional insecurity. The governance of urban land is also important analytically as land governance and state authority in Africa are believed to be closely linked and co-evolve. An ethnographic reading of governmentality enables researchers to study hybridization without biasing analysis towards hierarchical dualities. Additionally, a better understanding of hybridization in the claim-making practices may contribute to improved government intervention and development assistance in Bukavu and elsewhere.

Modal verbs in English communicate delicate shades of meaning, there being a large range of verbs both on the necessity side (must, have to, should, ought to, need, need to) and the possibility side (can, may, could, might, be able to). They therefore constitute excellent test ground to apply and compare different methodologies that can lay bare the factors that drive the speaker's choice of modal verb. This book is not merely concerned with a purely grammatical description of the use of modal verbs, but aims at advancing our understanding of lexical and grammatical units in general and of linguistic methodologies to explore these. It thus involves a genuine effort to compare, assess and combine a variety of approaches. It complements the leading descriptive qualitative work on modal verbs by testing a diverse range of quantitative methods, while not ignoring qualitative issues pertaining to the semantics-pragmatics interface. Starting from a critical assessment of what constitutes the meaning of modal verbs, different types of empirical studies (usage-based, data-driven and experimental), drawing considerably on the same data sets, shows how method triangulation can contribute to an enhanced understanding. Due attention is also given to individual variation as well as the degree to which modals can predict L2 proficiency level.