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This 1788 work, based on belief in the immortality of the soul and the existence of God, established Kant as a vindicator of the truth of Christianity. A seminal text in the history of moral philosophy, it offers the most complete statement of Kant's theory of free will and a full development of his practical metaphysics.

A 19th-century philosopher who challenged the foundations of Christianity and traditional morality, Nietzsche has inspired leading figures in all walks of cultural life. This compendium of aphorisms and prose poems marks the advent of his mature philosophy. It represents an essential guide to understanding his later, better-known works.

Two of Leibniz's most studied works. Published in 1686, the "Discourse on Metaphysics" consists of the philosopher's explanation of individual perception as an expression of the rest of the universe from a unique perspective. "The Monadology, "written in 1714, offers a concise synopsis of Leibniz's philosophy, establishing the laws of final causes.

This 1749 work features highly original theories of conscience, moral judgment, and virtue. It reconstructs the Enlightenment concept of social science, embracing both political economy and theories of law and government.

Asserting that religion and divinity are outward projections of inner human nature, this 1841 polemic excited immediate international attention and influenced the development of Marxist theory.

Equally captivating as a philosophical argument and as a work of literature, this classic is particularly relevant in terms of its criticism of the reasoning behind Intelligent Design.

Hegel wrote this classic as an introduction to a series of lectures on the "philosophy of history." With this work, he created the history of philosophy as a scientific study. He reveals philosophical theory as neither an accident nor an artificial construct, but as an exemplar of its age.

One of philosophy's most widely read books and the best introduction to Hume's other works, this 1748 treatise offers an accessible account of the author's provocative notions about the limitations of the mind. Topics include the logical coexistence of free will and determinism and the deficiencies of religious doctrine.

2 important works. Spinoza's "A Theologico-Political Treatise" presents an eloquent plea for religious liberty, demonstrating that true religion consists of the practice of simple piety, independent of philosophical speculation. In the unfinished "A Political Treatise," the author develops a theory of government founded on common consent.

A monumental work by a Nobel Prize-winner, this 1896 work represents one of the great inquiries into perception and memory, movement and time, matter and mind. Bergson surveys these independent but related spheres, exploring the connection of mind and body to individual freedom of choice.

Remarkable for its breadth and profundity, this work combines aspects of psychology, logic, moral philosophy, and history to form a comprehensive view that encompasses all forms of civilization. Its three divisions consist of the subjective mind, the objective mind, and the absolute mind. A wide-ranging survey of the evolution of consciousness.

Hume's comprehensive effort to form an observationally grounded study of human nature employs John Locke's empiric principles to construct a theory of knowledge from which to evaluate metaphysical ideas. A key to modern studies of 18th-century Western philosophy, the "Treatise" considers numerous classic philosophical issues, including causation, existence, freedom and necessity, and morality.